Ecosystems support human societies not only through material resources and environmental regulation, but also through benefits that shape how people feel, think, and relate to their surroundings. These intangible contributions are known as cultural ecosystem services. They represent the non-material outputs of nature—arising from both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components of ecosystems—that influence human physical and psychological well-being.
Cultural ecosystem services highlight the ways in which natural environments contribute to quality of life, providing experiences, meanings, and values that cannot be measured solely through physical goods or economic outputs.
Understanding Cultural Ecosystem Services
Cultural ecosystem services (CES) refer to the benefits ecosystems provide through non-consumptive and typically non-rival interactions—meaning that people can often enjoy these services without depleting them, and multiple individuals can benefit from them at the same time. In this sense, cultural services are often connected to places, landscapes, and species that shape human experiences, supporting mental restoration, inspiration, identity, and social connection.
The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) emphasizes that cultural services include the environmental characteristics and settings that lead to changes in people’s physical and mental states, and that these services are strongly shaped by the presence and functioning of natural systems.
Main Examples of Cultural Ecosystem Services
Recreation and Nature-Based Tourism
Natural spaces such as parks, forests, mountains, rivers, and coastal zones provide opportunities for leisure activities including hiking, swimming, wildlife observation, and ecotourism. These experiences support physical health through movement and outdoor activity, and they contribute to emotional well-being by reducing stress and fatigue.
Aesthetic Enjoyment and Landscape Appreciation
Ecosystems contribute to human well-being through beauty and sensory value. Scenic landscapes, biodiversity-rich environments, and distinctive natural features can provide emotional comfort, inspiration, and a sense of harmony—benefits that are deeply connected to mental health and life satisfaction.
Spiritual Values and Cultural Identity
Many communities associate ecosystems with spiritual meaning, sacred sites, cultural traditions, and collective identity. Mountains, forests, rivers, and particular species can hold symbolic importance that strengthens social cohesion and supports cultural continuity across generations.
Education, Knowledge, and Scientific Discovery
Nature also serves as a source of learning—supporting environmental education, research, and knowledge development. Ecosystems provide real-world settings where people can understand ecological processes, biodiversity, and sustainability challenges, benefiting both formal education and traditional knowledge systems.
Sense of Place and Cultural Heritage
Ecosystems contribute to the identity of regions and communities by shaping local heritage and strengthening people’s connection to where they live. Cultural landscapes—such as traditional agricultural systems, historic forests, or coastal environments—support belonging, continuity, and shared memory.
Why Cultural Ecosystem Services Matter
Cultural ecosystem services play a crucial role in sustaining human well-being because they directly influence mental health, lifestyle quality, and social resilience. Access to nature is widely associated with psychological restoration, reduced stress levels, and improved concentration, particularly in urbanized societies.
In addition, these services have growing importance in economic and planning contexts. Recreation, tourism, environmental education, and protected landscapes generate employment and contribute to local development—while also strengthening support for conservation and sustainable management.
